• 


ill 


THOMAS  H.  RUSSELL,  A,  ML,  LL  D. 


Pictorial  View  of  the 
World's  Greatest  Engineering  Feat 

Linking  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans 

With  a  Brief  History  and  Description  of  the 
Gigantic  Undertaking 


BY  "•:....• 

THOMAS  H.  RUSSELL,  A.  M.,  LL.  D. 

Member  National  Geographic  Society    '       •    •     •- 


THE    HAMMING    PUBLISHING    CO. 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


RVAT10N 
^DDED 
4  ALTO  BE 


15     W93 


COPYRIGHT,  1913, 

BY 
THE  HAMMING  PUBLISHING  CO. 


THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


T 


HE  Panama  Canal  will  soon  be  opened  for 
navigation,  and  the  passage  of  the  first  ves- 
sel from  ocean  to  ocean  through  its  hos- 
pitable locks  and  placid  waters  will  signalize  the 
successful  completion  of  the  greatest  engineering 
feat  in  the  world's  history.  Naturally  enough,  it 
will  afford  an  occasion  for  pardonable  pride  and 
patriotic  enthusiasm  to  every  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  whose  government  has  carried  through  this 
gigantic  undertaking  in  spite  of  almost  insuperable 
difficulties. 

While  the  official  date  of  opening  the  Canal  has 
been  set  for  January  i,  1915,  it  is  the  intention  to 
allow  vessels  to  utilize  the  new  waterway  just  as 
soon  as  practicable.  Present  indications  seem  to 
bear  out  the  opinion  expressed  by  Colonel  George 
W.  Goethals,  U.  S.  A.,  chairman  and  chief  engineer 
of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  that  this  can 
be  accomplished  during  the  latter  half  of  1913. 
Shipping  interests  all  over  the  world  will  be  advised 


as  soon  as  the  Commission  feels  assured  that  ves- 
sels can  be  passed  without  unnecessary  delay. 

The  Panama  Canal  is  indeed  a  tremendous  work, 
dwarfing  all  other  undertakings  of  human  skill  and 
labor.  It  links  the  oceans  that  have  been  hitherto 
communicable  one  with  the  other  only  at  the  ex- 
pense of  weeks  of  time  and  a  mint  of  money.  Time 
is  the  essence  of  all  business  movements  nowa- 
days— now  more  than  ever  before — and  the  time 
that  will  be  saved  daily  in  transit  between  the  great 
trading  centers  by  the  opening  of  the  Canal  is  of 
almost  inestimable  value. 

In  a  recent  message  to  Congress  the  President  of 
the  United  States  said  that  the  first  passage  of 
ships  through  the  Canal  would  mark  an  important 
era,  not  in  the  history  of  this  country  alone,  but 
in  that  of  the  civilized  world ;  and  it  will  undoubt- 
edly make  a  tremendous  difference  in  the  attitude 
of  the  nations  that  are  commonly  regarded  as  con- 
stituting the  backbone  of  civilization. 


When  it  is  possible,  for  instance,  to  send  from 
New  York  to  San  Francisco  a  great  battleship  or  a 
fleet  for  the  protection  of  our  Western  coast,  in  a 
small  fraction  of  the  time  it  used  to  take,  that  alone 
constitutes  a  marvelous  advance  in  our  methods 
and  means  of  self-defense.  And  that  is  the  kind 
of  advance  in  martial  facility  that  appeals  to  other 
nations  and  influences  their  attitude, — nations  that 
may  possibly  contemplate  the  angles  of  attack  upon 
the  United  States, — not  now,  let  us  hope  and  be- 
lieve, but  at  some  time  in  the  future.  Statesmen  of 
the  elder  variety  always  figure  ahead,  and  the 
defensive,  non-aggressive  nation  must  always  pre- 
pare its  bulwarks  of  defense,  just  as  the  offensive 
nation  prepares  its  artillery. 

The  United  States,  seeking  trouble  with  none, 
but  offering  a  means  of  facile  interoceanic  transit 
to  all,  asks  simply  that  it  may  enjoy  the  fruits  of 
its  own  enterprise — and  no  self-respecting  nation 
would  ask  less.  Suppose  the  conditions  were 
changed.  Suppose  some  European  nation,  for  in- 
stance, had  built  the  great  passageway  between  two 
oceans.  Does  anyone  imagine  for  a  single  instant 
that  that  nation  would  surrender  one  jot  or  tittle 
of  its  right  to  control  the  Canal  ?  Suppose  France 


had  succeeded  in  putting  through  a  world's  high- 
way for  commerce  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
across  Central  American  territory.  Does  anyone 
suppose  for  a  moment  that  France,  or  Germany,  or 
any  other  nation  that  had  thus  opened  up  a  water- 
way of  universal  interest  would  not  have  retained 
the  utmost  possible  benefit  from  its  operation? 

And  why  should  the  United  States  surrender  one 
bit  of  the  advantage  it  has  gained  by  taking  over 
from  another  power  the  privilege — for  it  is  an 
international  privilege — of  building  this  great  and 
wonderful  link  between  the  mighty  oceans  of  the 
western  world? 

Soon  to  be  opened,  as  the  result  of  American 
enterprise  and  ingenuity,  after  failure  had  marked 
the  attempts  of  the  greatest  European  canal  build- 
ers,— the  Panama  Canal  will  stand  as  an  ever- 
lasting monument  to  American  genius,  the  genius 
of  construction  that  leads  the  world  today;  that 
erects  gigantic  structures  in  all  the  countries  that 
have  faith  and  capital  to  invest  in  modern  methods ; 
the  constructive  genius  that  knows  no  difficulties, 
that  could  reconstruct  the  Pyramids  or  the  hang- 
ing gardens  of  Babylon,  and  that  would  make  a 


night's  work  of  building  a  second  Sphinx,  if  the 
utility  of  the  object  could  be  demonstrated. 

It  is  this  constructive  genius  that  is  immortalized 
in  the  Panama  Canal.  America  can  build  anything 
the  world  wants,  and  has  the  men  and  the  money  to 
do  it — and  the  Old  World  probably  needed  the  les- 
son. It  needed  to  be  taught  that  there  are  here  in 
the  United  States  the  engineers  to  plan,  the  build- 
ers and  mechanics  to  construct,  and  the  ability  and 
energy  to  carry  out  great  enterprises  that  the  Old 
World  dreams  about  decade  after  decade  and  knows 
not  how  to  realize. 

Four  hundred  years  had  passed  since  first  the  idea 
of  a  passage  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  across 
the  Isthmus  that  separates  the  north  and  south 
American  continents  first  entered  the  head  of  civi- 
lized man.  There  were  four  centuries  of  talk  about 
it — and  little  done  until  a  practical,  level-headed 
American  occupying  the  Presidential  chair  of  the 
United  States  saw  not  only  the  opportunity,  but 
the  feasibility  of  a  definite  plan — and  was  pos- 
sessed of  sufficient  American  initiative  to  go  ahead 
with  the  work,  even  though  it  involved  the  recog- 


nition of  a  young  Republic  before  any  of  the  older 
sister  nations  had  had  their  say. 

So  the  •  United  States  stepped  in,  made  the 
Republic  of  Panama  possible,  and  secured  the 
Canal  Zone  in  which  \ve  proceeded  to  build  the 
big  waterway  that  will  make  our  possessions  more 
and  more  valuable  as  the  years  elapse. 

Now  the  time  approaches  when  we  are  to  see 
the  solid  success  of  our  endeavors ;  when  ships  shall 
pass  from  ocean  to  ocean  under  the  American  flag, 
and  all  the  world  shall  pay  us  tribute  for  our  dar- 
ing and  our  skill.  We  have  succeeded  where  others 
have  failed  ;  but  in  our  triumph  there  is  no  note 
of  undue  exultation,  no  idea  of  boasting  of  our 
accomplishment ; — simply  a  perfectly  proper  ex- 
pression of  pride  in  our  achievement,  a  pride  we 
have  a  right  to  feel  as  a  nation  of  doers  as  well  as 
tninkers ;  and  we  extend  with  the  expression  of  our 
delight  in  achievement  a  cordial  invitation  to  the 
nations  of  the  world  to  come  and  enjoy  with  us  the 
fruits  of  our  high  endeavor. 

In  building  the  Panama  Canal  we  know  that  we 
have  conferred  a  favor  on  humanity.  We  have 


helped  to  annihilate  distance.  We  have  aided  in 
bringing  the  nations  closer  together.  We  have 
made  trade  and  commerce  easier  and  more  profit- 
able for  all.  We  have  wrought  not  for  ourselves 
alone,  but  for  civilization — and  we  present  the 
result  in  an  accomplished  fact  where  others  the- 
orized and  fell  down. 

We  dedicate  our  work  for  the  use  and  benefit  of 
our  own  and  succeeding  generations.  The  first 
ship  that  passes  through  the  Panama  Canal,  even 
though  it  be  an  American  battleship,  will  be 
freighted  with  a  message  of  peace  and  good  will  to 
all  the  earth — and  they  who  cannot  read  that  mes- 
sage aright  deserve  none  of  the  benefits  that  will 
flow  from  the  opening  of  the  waterway. 

In  this  book  there  is  presented  a  pictorial  review 
of  the  great  Canal  in  the  process  of  building.  Com- 
pleted, the  Canal  will  be  a  picture.  In  the  making 
it  was  not  always  pretty  and  the  workers  toiled 
and  dug  in  the  sweat  of  their  brow.  It  is  believed 
that  none  can  view  these  pictures  without  being 
impressed  with  the  magnitude  of  the  work,  with 
its  difficulties  and  its  dangers,  and  with  the  mar- 
velous results  of  the  engineering  and  administra- 


tive skill  displayed  by  the  men  of  the  United  States 
Army  who  finally,  after  many  had  tried  and  been 
found  wanting,  carried  this  mammoth  undertaking 
to  a  successful  conclusion. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  CANAL. 

The  history  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  is  a  remark- 
able record  of  persistent  human  endeavor,  covering 
four  centuries  of  time,  marked  by  many  failures, 
and  now  at  last  about  to  be  crowned  with  success. 

The  project  has  long  been  recognized  as  "an 
indispensable  factor  in  the  future  of  the  American 
continent."  Spain,  England,  Portugal,  and  France 
have  all  embarked  upon  the  work,  either  directly 
or  by  giving  aid  and  encouragement  to  their  repre- 
sentatives, and  failed.  The  time  for  success  had 
not  yet  arrived,  for  even  if  the  funds  with  which 
to  prosecute  the  work  had  been  unlimited,  the  diffi- 
culties were  then  too  great  for  engineering  and 
medical  science  to  solve. 

It  was  President  Grant  who  first  advanced  the 
policy  of  "an  American  canal  under  American  con- 
trol." President  Roosevelt,  voicing  the  sentiments 


Photo  by   t'ntlerwood  &  Underwood,  N.   T. 

Col.  George  W.  Goethals,  U.  S.  A. 

Chief  Engineer  and  Chairman   Isthmian  Canal  Commission 

of  the  entire  American  people,  lent  the  aid  of  the 
United  States  in  undertaking  the  work,  and  Presi- 


dent Taft  enthusiastically  advanced  the  project, 
which  will  be  completed,  in  all  human  probability, 
under  the  administration  of  President  Wilson. 

The  idea  of  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
was  born  in  the  days  of  Balboa,  who  crossed  the 
isthmus  in  1513.  but  the  project  met  with  opposition 
in  Spain  under  King  Philip  II.,  and  was  laid  on  the 
shelf  for  two  centuries  or  more.  In  1814  it  was 
revived,  but  by  that  time  Spain  had  lost  her  Central 
and  South  American  colonies,  and  ceased  to  be  a 
factor  in  canal  affairs. 

England  investigated  Isthmian  conditions  with 
reference  to  a  canal  early  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
through  Lord  Nelson  and  Baron  von  Humboldt,  but 
nothing  practical  resulted  from  their  reports.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  Goethe  about  this  time 
prophesied  an  Isthmian  canal  under  American  con- 
trol. 

In  1835  tne  United  States  first  became  interested 
in  the  project  through  a  resolution  introduced  in 
the  Senate  by  Henry  Clay,  but  the  panic  of  1837 
effectually  estopped  action  contemplated  at  that 
time. 


In  1838  a  concession  was  granted  to  a  French 
company  for  the  construction  of  highways,  rail- 
roads or  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus,  but  the  con- 
cession lapsed  for  lack  of  capital. 

The  year  1855  saw  the  opening  of  the  Panama 
Railroad,  constructed  by  Americans  across  the  Isth- 
mus. The  concession  of  the  company  gave  it  con- 
trol of  the  Panama  route  for  a  canal,  but  with  rail- 
road communication  firmly  established  and  finan- 
cially successful,  the  idea  of  canal  construction  was 
relegated  to  the  background. 

Meanwhile  other  canal  routes  were  exploited  by 
a  small  army  of  promoters.  Altogether  nineteen 
different  routes  have  been  suggested  and  received 
more  or  less  attention.  Of  these,  the  Tehuantepec, 
Nicaragua,  Panama,  and  Darien  projects  are  the 
most  important,  and  Nicaragua  has  been  Panama's 
principal  rival  in  the  last  thirty  years. 

In  1869  the  United  States  again  took  up  the  canal 
question,  and  President  Grant  appointed  an  inter- 
oceanic  canal  commission.  But  nothing  definite  was 
done  and  France  stepped  into  the  arena  in  1876, 
and  remained  in  control  of  operations  for  twenty- 
eight  years,  until  1904,  when  the  French  retired, 


defeated,  in  favor  of  the  United  States.  This  in- 
cluded the  period  of  effort  of  the  great  French 
engineer,  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  builder  of  the  Suez 
Canal.  His  unsuccessful  aim  was  to  build  a  sea- 
level  canal  across  the  Isthmus. 

Progress  having  ceased  at  Panama  under  the  sec- 
ond French  Canal  Company,  on  March  3,  1899,  tne 
Congress  of  the  United  States  passed  an  act  author- 
izing the  President  to  make  full  and  complete  in- 
vestigations of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  with  a  view 
to  the  construction  of  a  canal  to  connect  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  oceans. 

This  marks  the  opening  of  the  last  chapter  in 
the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal,  the  end  of 
which  is  now,  by  the  early  completion  of  the  canal, 
in  sight.  The  commission  appointed  in  accordance 
with  the  above  act  was  called  upon  to  investigate 
particularly  the  Nicaragua  and  the  Panama  routes 
and  to  report  which  was  the  more  practicable  and 
feasible,  and  the  cost.  In  November,  1901,  it  re- 
ported in  favor  of  the  Nicaragua  route.  The  price 
fixed  by  the  Panama  Canal  Company  was  $109,000,- 
ooo.  By  subsequent  negotiations  the  French  com- 
pany was  induced  to  reduce  its  price  to  $40,000,000, 


8 


and  the  commission  in  January,  1902,  submitted  a 
supplemental  report  in  favor  of  the  Panama  route. 

Satisfactory  arrangements  were  completed  for 
tl^e  purchase  of  the  French  company's  rights,  etc., 
for  $40,000,000,  and  negotiations  with  the  Republic 
of  Colombia  were  carried  on  to  secure  other  neces- 
sary rights  and  privileges  not  held  by  the  French 
company.  After  a  long  delay,  a  satisfactory  treaty 
was  formulated,  which  was  rejected  by  Colombia 
in  1903. 

The  province  of  Panama,  an  integral  part  of 
Colombia,  thereupon  seceded  and  organized  an 
independent  republic,  with  an  area  of  about  31,000 
square  miles  and  a  population  which  at  present  is 
stated  to  be  419,000.  This  resulted  in  the  negotia- 
tion of  a  satisfactory  treaty  with  the  new  Republic 
of  Panama,  including  the  payment,  under  certain 
terms,  of  $10,000,000  by  the  United  States  to  the 
Republic  of  Panama  and  an  annual  payment  of 
$250,000  beginning  nine  years  after  the  signing  of 
the  treaty.  Under  this  treaty  the  United  States 
guaranteed  the  independence  of  the  Republic  of 
Panama  and  secured  absolute  control  over  what  is 
now  called  the  Canal  Zone,  a  strip  of  land  about 


10  miles  in  width,  with  the  canal  through  the  center, 
and  45  miles  in  length  from  sea  to  sea,  with  an  area 
of  about  448  square  miles.  The  United  States  also 
has  jurisdiction  over  the  adjacent  water  for  three 
miles  from  shore. 

The  act  of  Congress  of  1902  placed  entire  juris- 
diction in  regard  to  the  construction  of  the  canal  in 
the  hands  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  the 
particular  functions  in  regard  thereto  being  exer- 
cised by  a  commission  of  seven  members.  For 
convenience  in  administration  the  canal  operations 
were  placed  under  the  Secretary  of  War. 

The  formal  transfer  of  the  property  of  the  French 
Canal  Company  to  the  United  States  took  place  on 
May  4,  1904,  and  the  first  two  and  one-half  years 
thereafter,  or  until  January,  1907,  were  devoted 
largely  to  the  work  of  preparation. 

Meanwhile  the  lock  type  of  canal  had  been  de- 
cided upon,  and  on  June  29,  1906,  its  construction 
was  authorized  by  Congress,  and  promptly  entered 
upon  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  which, 
with  Col.  George  W.  Goethals,  U.  S.  A.,  as  chairman 
and  chief  engineer,  will  soon  see  the  full  fruition  of 
its  splendid  patriotic  endeavors.  T.  H.  R. 


Area  of  Gatun  Lake  at 
Ele*  +85  Ft, 163.38  Sq.Mi. 


Map   Showing   Isthmus  with   Completed   Canal. 


PLAN  OF  THE  CANAL 

The  entire  length  of  the  Panama  Canal  from 
deep  water  in  the  Atlantic  to  deep  water  in  the 
Pacific  is  about  50  miles.  Its  length  from  shore- 
line to  shore-line  is  about  40  miles.  In  passing 
through  it  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  a  ves- 
sel will  enter  the  approach  channel  in  Limon  Bay, 
which  will  have  a  bottom  width  of  500  feet  and 
extend  to  Gatun,  a  distance  of  about  seven  miles. 
At  Gatun,  it  will  enter  a  series  of  three  locks  in 
flight  and  be  lifted  85  feet  to  the  level  of  Gatun 
Lake.  It  may  steam  at  full  speed  through  this 
lake,  in  a  channel  varying  from  1,000  to  500  feet 
in  width,  for  a  distance  of  about  24  miles,  to  Bas 
Obispo,  where  it  will  enter  the  Culebra  Cut.  It 
will  pass  through  the  Cut,  a  distance  of  about  nine 
miles,  in  a  channel  with  a  bottom  width  of  300  feet, 
to  Pedro  Miguel.  There  it  will  enter  a  lock  and  be 
lowered  30^  feet  to  a  small  lake,  at  an  elevation 
of  54%  feet  above  sea  level,  and  will  pass  through 
this  for  about  il/>  miles  to  Miraflores.  There  it 
will  enter  two  locks  in  series  and  be  lowered  to  sea 


level,  passing  out  into  the  Pacific  through  a  channel 
about  Sl/2  miles  in  length,  with  a  bottom  width 
of  500  feet.  The  depth  of  the  approach  channel 
on  the  Atlantic  side,  where  the  maximum  tidal 
oscillation  is  2l/2  feet,  will  be  41  feet  at  mean  tide, 
and  on  the  Pacific  side,  where  the  maximum  oscil- 
lation is  21  feet,  the  depth  will  be  45  feet  at  mean 
tide. 

Throughout  the  first  16  miles  from  Gatun,  the 
width  of  the  Lake  channel  will  be  1,000  feet;  then 
for  4  miles  it  will  be  800  feet,  and  for  4  miles 
more,  to  the  northern  entrance  of  Culebra  Cut  at 
Bas  Obispo,  it  will  be  500  feet.  The  depth  will 
vary  from  85  to  45  feet.  The  water  level  in  the 
Cut  will  be  that  of  the  Lake,  the  depth  45  feet, 
and  the  bottom  width  of  the  channel  300  feet. 

Three  hundred  feet  is  the  minimum  bottom 
width  of  the  Canal.  This  width  begins  about  half 
a  mile  above  Pedro  Miguel  locks  and  extends  about 
8  miles  through  Culebra  Cut,  with  the  exception 
that  at  all  angles  the  channel  is  widened  sufficiently 
to  allow  a  thousand-foot  vessel  to  make  the  turn. 
The  Cut  has  eight  angles,  or  about  one  to  every 
mile.  The  300- foot  widths  are  only  on  tangents 


II 


between  the  turning  basins  at  the  angles.  The 
smallest  of  these  angles  is  7°  36',  and  the 
largest  30°. 

GATUN  DAM 

The  Gatun  Dam,  which  will  form  Gatun  Lake  by 
impounding  the  waters  of  the  Chagres  and  its 
tributaries,  will  be  nearly  il/2  miles  long,  measured 
on  its  crest,  nearly  l/2  mile  wide  at  its  base,  about 
400  feet  wide  at  the  water  surface,  about  100  feet 
wide  at  the  top,  and  its  crest,  as  planned,  will  be  at 
an  elevation  of  115  feet  above  mean  sea  level,  or 
30  feet  above  the  normal  level  of  the  Lake.  Of 
the  total  length  of  the  Dam  only  500  feet,  or  one- 
fifteenth,  will  be  exposed  to  the  maximum  water 
head  of  85  feet.  The  interior  of  the  Dam  is  being 
formed  of  a  natural  mixture  of  sand  and  clay, 
dredged  by  hydraulic  process  from  pits  above  and 
below  the  Dam,  and  placed  between  two  large 
masses  of  rock  and  miscellaneous  material  obtained 
from  steam  shovel  excavation  at  various  points 
along  the  Canal.  The  top  and  upstream  slope  will 
be  thoroughly  riprapped.  The  entire  Dam  will  con- 
tain about  21,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material. 


The  Spillway  is  a  concrete  lined  opening,  1,200 
feet  long  and  300  feet  wide,  cut  through  a  hill  of 
rock  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  Dam,  the  bottom 
of  the  opening  being  10  feet  above  sea  level.  It 
will  contain  about  225,000  cubic  yards  of  concrete. 
During  the  construction  of  the  Dam,  all  the  water 
discharged  from  the  Chagres  and  its  tributaries 
will  flow  through  this  opening.  When  construction 
has  advanced  sufficiently  to  permit  the  Lake  to  be 
formed,  the  Spillway  will  be  closed  with  a  concrete 
dam,  fitted  with  gates  and  machinery  for  regulat- 
ing the  water  level  of  the  Lake. 

WATER  SUPPLY  OF  GATUN  LAKE 

Gatun  Lake  will  impound  the  waters  of  a  basin 
comprising  1,320  square  miles.  When  the  surface 
of  the  water  is  at  85  feet  above  sea  level,  the  Lake 
will  have  an  area  of  about  164  square  miles,  and 
will  contain  about  206  billion  cubic  feet  of  water. 
During  eight  or  nine  months  of  the  year,  the  lake 
will  be  kept  constantly  full  by  the  prevailing  rains, 
and  consequently  a  surplus  will  need  to  be  stored 
for  only  three  or  four  months  of  the  dry  season. 


12 


The  smallest  run-off  of  water  in  the  basin,  during 
the  past  21  years,  as  measured  at  Gatun,  was  about 
146  billion  cubic  feet.  In  1910  the  run-off  was 
360  billion  cubic  feet,  or  a  sufficient  quantity  to 
fill  the  lake  one  and  a  half  times.  The  water  sur- 
face of  the  Lake  will  be  maintained  during  the 
rainy  season  at  87  feet  above  sea  level,  making 
the  minimum  channel  depth  in  the  Canal  47  feet. 
As  navigation  can  be  carried  on  with  about  41  feet 
of  water,  there  will  be  stored  for  dry  season  sur- 
plus over  five  feet  of  water.  Making  due  allow- 
ance for  evaporation,  seepage,  leakage  at  the  gates, 
and  power  consumption,  this  would  be  ample  for 
41  passages  daily  through  the  locks,  using  them  at 
full  length,  or  about  58  lockages  a  day  when  partial 
length  is  used,  as  would  be  usually  the  case,  and 
when  cross  filling  from  one  lock  to  the  other 
through  the  central  wall  is  employed.  This  would 
be  a  larger  number  of  lockages  than  would  be  pos- 
sible in  a  single  day.  The  average  number  of  lock- 
ages through  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  on  the 
American  side  was  37  per  day  in  the  season  of  navi- 
gation of  1909,  which  was  about  eight  months  long. 
The  average  number  of  ships  passed  was  about 


il/2  per  lockage.  The  freight  carried  was  more 
than  30,000,000  tons.  The  Suez  Canal  passed  about 
12  vessels  per  day,  with  a  total  tonnage  for  the 
year  of  15,500,000. 

DAMS  ON  PACIFIC  SIDE 

The  water  level  of  Gatun  Lake,  extending 
through  the  Culebra  Cut,  will  be  maintained  at 
the  south  end  by  an  earth  dam  connecting  the  locks 
at  Pedro  Miguel  with  the  high  ground  to  the  west- 
ward, about  1,400  feet  long,  with  its  crest  at  an 
elevation  of  105  feet  above  mean  tide.  A  concrete 
core  wall,  containing  about  700  cubic  yards,  will 
connect  the  locks  with  the  hills  to  the  eastward ; 
this  core  wall  will  rest  directly  on  the  rock  surface 
and  is  designed  to  prevent  percolation  through  the 
earth,  the  surface  of  which  is  above  the  Lake  level. 

A  small  lake  between  the  locks  at  Pedro  Miguel 
and  Miraflores  will  be  formed  by  dams  connecting 
the  walls  of  Miraflores  locks  with  the  high  ground 
on  either  side.  The  dam  to  the  westward  will  be 
of  earth,  about  2,700  feet  long,  having  its  crest 
about  15  feet  above  the  water  in  Miraflores  Lake. 


The  east  dam  will  be  of  concrete,  containing  about 
75,000  cubic  yards ;  will  be  about  500  feet  long,  and 
will  form  a  spillway  for  Miraflores  Lake,  with  crest 
gates  similar  to  those  at  the  Spillway  of  the  Gatun 
Dam. 

THE  LOCKS 

There  will  be  six~  double  locks  in  the  Canal ; 
three  pairs  in  flight  at  Gatun,  with  a  combined  lift 
of  85  feet;  one  pair  at  Pedro  Miguel,  with  a  lift 
of  3°/<3  feet,  and  two  pairs  at  Miraflores,  with  a 
combined  lift  of  54^3  feet  at  mean  tide.  The  usable 
dimensions  of  all  are  the  same — a  length  of  1,000 
feet,  and  width  of  no  feet.  Each  lock  will  be  a 
chamber,  with  walls  and  floor  of  concrete,  and 
mitering  gates  at  each  end. 

The  side  walls  will  be  45  to  50  feet  wide  at  the 
surface  of  the  floor;  will  be  perpendicular  on  the 
face,  and  will  narrow  from  a  point  24^/3  feet  above 
the  floor  until  they  are  8  feet  wide  at  the  top.  The 
middle  wall  will  be  60  feet  wide,  approximately  81 
feet  high,  and  each  face  will  be  vertical.  At  a 
point  42^/3  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  floor,  and 


15  feet  above  the  top  of  the  middle  culvert,  this 
wall  will  divide  into  two  parts,  leaving  a  space  down 
the  center  much  like  the  letter  "U,"  which  will  be 
19  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and  44  feet  wide  at  the 
top.  In  this  center  space  will  be  a  tunnel  divided 
into  three  stories,  or  galleries.  The  lowest  gallery 
will  be  for  drainage ;  the  middle,  for  the  wires  that 
will  carry  the  electric  current  to  operate  the  gate 
and  valve  machinery  installed  in  the  center  wall, 
and  the  upper  will  be  a  passageway  for  the 
operators. 

The  lock  gates  will  be  steel  structures  7  feet 
thick.  65  feet  long,  and  from  47  to  82  feet  high. 
They  will  weigh  from  300  to  600  tons  each.  Ninety- 
two  leaves  will  be  required  for  the  entire  Canal, 
the  total  weighing  57,000  tons.  Intermediate  gates 
will  be  used  in  the  locks,  in  order  to  save  water 
and  time,  if  desired,  in  locking  small  vessels 
through,  the  gates  being  so  placed  as  to  divide  the 
locks  into  chambers  600  and  400  feet  long,  respec- 
tively. Ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  vessels  navigat- 
ing the  high  seas  are  less  than  600  feet  long.  In 
the  construction  of  the  locks,  it  is  estimated  that 
there  will  he  used  approximately  4,200^000  cubic 


yards  of  concrete,  requiring  about  the  same  num- 
ber of  barrels  of  cement. 

Electricity  will  be  used  to  tow  all  vessels  into 
and  through  the  locks,  and  to  operate  all  gates  and 
valves,  power  being  generated  by  water  turbines 
from  the  head  created  by  Gatun  Lake.  Vessels 
will  not  be  permitted  to  enter  or  pass  through  the 
locks  under  their  own  power,  but  will  be  towed 
through  by  electric  locomotives  running  on  cog- 
rails  laid  on  the  tops  of  the  lock  walls.  There  will 
be  two  towing  tracks  for  each  flight  of  locks,  one 
on  the  side  and  one  on  the  middle  wall.  On  each 
side  wall  there  will  be  one  return  track  and  on  the 
middle  wall  a  third  common  to  both  of  the  twin 
locks.  All  tracks  will  run  continuously  the  entire 
length  of  the  respective  flights  and  will  extend 
some  distance  on  the  guide  approach  walls  at  each 
end.  The  number  of  locomotives  used  will  vary 
with  the  size  of  the  vessel.  The  usual  number 
required  will  be  four;  two  ahead,  one  on  each  wall, 
imparting  motion  to  the  vessel,  and  two  astern, 
one  on  each  wall,  to  aid  in  keeping  the  vessel  in  a 
central  position  and  to  bring  it  to  rest  when  entirely 
within  the  lock  chamber.  They  will  be  equipped 


with  a  slip  drum,  towing  windlass  and  hawser  which 
will  permit  the  towing  line  to  be  taken  in  or  paid 
out  without  actual  motion  of  the  locomotive  on 
the  track. 

The  locks  will  be  filled  and  emptied  through  a 
system  of  culverts.  One  culvert  254  sq.  ft.  in  area 
of  cross  section,  about  the  area  of  the  Hudson 
River  tunnels  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  extends 
the  entire  length  of  each  of  the  middle  and  side 
walls  and  from  each  of  these  large  culverts  there 
are  several  smaller  culverts,  33  to  44  sq.  ft.  in  area, 
which  extend  under  the  floor  of  the  lock  and  com- 
municate with  the  lock  chamber  through  holes  in 
the  floor.  The  large  culverts  are  controlled  at 
points  near  the  miter  gates  by  large  valves  and 
each  of  the  small  culverts  extending  from  the  mid- 
dle wall  culvert  into  the  twin  chambers  is  controlled 
by  a  cylindrical  valve.  The  large  culvert  in  the 
middle  wall  feeds  in  both  directions  through  later- 
als, thus  permitting  the  passage  of  water  from  one 
twin  lock  to  another,  effecting  a  saving  of  water. 
(See  cuts.) 

To  fill  a  lock  the  valves  at  the  upper  end  are 
opened  and  the  lower  valves  closed.  The  water 


Catun  Dam,  Spillway  and  Locks. 
16 


flows  from  the  upper  pool  through  the  large  cul- 
verts into  the  small  lateral  culverts  and  thence 
through  the  holes  in  the  floor  into  the  lock  cham- 
ber. To  empty  a  lock  the  valves  at  the  upper  end 
are  closed  and  those  at  the  lower  end  are  opened 
and  the  water  flows  into  the  lower  lock  or  pool  in  a 
similar  manner.  This  system  distributes  the  water 
as  evenly  as  possible  over  the  entire  horizontal  area 
of  the  lock  and  reduces  the  disturbance  in  the  cham- 
ber when  it  is  being  filled  or  emptied. 

The  depth  of  water  over  the  miter  sills  of  the 
locks  will  be  40  feet  in  salt  water  and  41 1/$  feet  in 
fresh  water. 

.  The  average  time  of  filling  and  emptying  a  lock 
will  be  about  fifteen  minutes,  without  opening  the 
valves  so  suddenly  as  to  create  disturbing  currents 
in  the  locks  or  approaches.  The  time  required  to 
pass  a  vessel  through  all  the  locks  is  estimated  at 
3  hours ;  one  hour  and  a  half  in  the  three  locks  at 
Gatun,  and  about  the  same  time  in  the  three  locks 
on  the  Pacific  side.  The  time  of  passage  of  a  ves- 
sel through  the  entire  Canal  is  estimated  as  ranging 
from  10  to  12  hours,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
ship,  and  the  rate  of  speed  at  which  it  can  travel 


MODEL  OF  PEDRO  MIGUEL  LOCKS 

The  lock  on  the  right  is  nearly  filled  for  an  up- 
ward lockage.  Four  electric  locomotives  are  shown 
securely  holding  a  io,ooo-ton  ship,  and  ready  to 


tow  it  out  of  the  lock,  so  soon  as  the  upper  gates 
are  opened.  In  the  foreground  is  shown  a  protec- 
tive chain ;  at  the  entrance  to  the  lock  on  the  left 
is  shown  a  caisson  in  position  and  acting  as  a  bar- 
rier between  the  high  level  above  and  the  low  level 
below  the  lock. 

On  the  right  is  shown  an  emergency  dam  in  its 
normal  position  when  not  in  use  and  on  the  left  the 
other  dam  is  shown  swung  in  position  across  the 
lock  with  the  wicket  girder  down  in  readiness  to 
support  the  wickets  or  gates  which  complete  the 
barrier. 

SLIDES 

There  are  in  all  twenty-one  slides  along  the 
Culebra  Cut.  Twelve  cover  areas  varying  from 
one  to  forty-seven  acres,  and  nine  cover  areas  of 
less  than  one  acre  each,  making  in  all  a  total  of 
one  hundred  and  forty-nine  acres.  The  largest  is 
the  Cucaracha  slide,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Canal, 
which  covers  an  area  of  forty-seven  acres,  and 
which  has  broken  back  1,820  feet  from  the  center 


line  of  the  Canal.  This  slide,  according  to  French 
records,  started  as  early  as  1884,  and  has  given  the 
Americans  considerable  trouble  since  they  began 
work.  Over  two  million  cubic  yards  have  been 
removed  by  the  Americans,  and  the  slide  is  still 
active.  The  next  largest  slide  is  a  combination  of 
two  slides  on  the  west  side  of  the  Cut  at  Culebra, 
just  north  of  Contractor's  Hill,  covering  about 
twenty-eight  acres.  Over  two  million  cubic  yards 
have  been  removed  from  this  slide,  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  one  million  cubic  yards  are  still  in 
motion.  On  the  east  side  of  the  Cut,  north  of  Gold 
Hill,  is  another  large  slide  covering  an  area  of 
about  seventeen  acres  which  has  broken  back  1,200 
feet  from  the  center  line  of  the  Canal.  Over  416,- 
ooo  cubic  yards  have  been  taken  out  of  this  slide 
and  about  three-quarters  of  a  million  more  are  still 
in  motion.  The  total  distance  across  the  Cut  at  this 
point  from  back  to  back  of  slides  is  1,950  feet.  In 
all,  over  nine  million  cubic  yards  have  been  taken 
out  since  July,  1905,  because  of  slides,  and  over 
three  million  cubic  yards  are  still  in  motion. 


18 


CAPACITY  OF  STEAM  SHOVELS  AND 
DIRT  TRAINS 


Side  WaU  of  Locks  Compared  with  Six-story 
Building. 


There  are  several  classes  of  steam  shovels 
engaged  in  excavating  work,  equipped  with  dippers 
ranging  in  capacity  from  i^  cubic  yards  to  5  cubic 
yards,  and  a  trenching  shovel,  which  has  a  dipper 
with  a  capacity  of  £4  of  a  cubic  yard. 

Each  cubic  yard,  place  measurement,  of  average 
rock  weighs  about  3,900  pounds;  of  earth,  about 
3,000  pounds ;  of  "the  run  of  the  cut,"  about  3,600 
pounds,  and  is  said  to  represent  about  a  two-horse 
cart  load.  Consequently,  a  five-cubic  yard  dipper, 
when  full,  carries  8.7  tons  of  rock,  6.7  tons  of  earth, 
and  8.03  tons  of  "the  run  of  the  cut." 

Three  classes  of  cars  are  used  in  hauling  spoil — 
flat  cars  with  one  high  side,  which  are  unloaded 
by  plows  operated  by  a  cable  upon  a  winding  drum, 
and  two  kinds  of  dump  cars,  one  large  and  one 
small.  The  capacity  of  the  flat  cars  is  19  cubic 
yards;  that  of  the  large  dump  cars,  17  cubic  yards, 
and  that  of  the  small  dump  cars,  10  cubic  yards. 
The  flat  car  train  is  ordinarily  composed  of  20  cars 
in  hauling  from  the  cut  at  Pedro  Miguel,  and  of 


2i  cars  in  hauling  from  the  cut  at  Matachin.  The 
large  dump  train  is  composed  of  27  cars,  and  the 
small  dump  train  of  35  cars. 

The  average  load  of  a  train  of  flat  cars,  in  haul- 
ing the  mixed  material  known  as  "the  run  of  the 
cut,"  is  610.7  tons  (based  on  a  2O-car  train)  ;  of  a 
train  of  large  dump  cars,  737.68  tons,  and  of  a 
train  of  small  dumps,  562.5  tons. 

The  average  time  consumed  in  unloading  a  train 
of  flat  cars  is  from  7  to  15  minutes;  in  unloading 
a  train  of  large  dump  cars,  15  to  40  minutes,  and 
in  unloading  a  train  of  small  dump  cars,  6  to  56 
minutes.  The  large  dump  cars  are  operated  by 
compressed  air  power  furnished  by  the  air  pump 
of  the  locomotive,  while  the  small  dump  cars  are 
operated  by  hand. 

The  record  day's  work  for  one  steam  shovel  was 
that  of  March  22,  1910,  4,823  cubic  yards  of  rock 
(place  measurement),  or  8,395  tons.  The  highest 
daily  record  in  the  Central  Division  was  on  March 
n,  1911,  when  51  steam  shovels  and  2  cranes 
equipped  with  orange  peel  buckets  excavated  an 
aggregate  of  79,  484  cubic  yards,  or  127,742  tons. 
During  this  day,  333  loaded  trains  and  as  many 


erpty  trains  were  run  to  and  from  the  dumping 
grounds. 

TOTAL  AMOUNT  OF  EXCAVATION 

The  following  was  the  estimated  excavation 
required  May  4,  1904,  based  on  the  plans  for  the 
lock  canal : 

Cubic  feet. 

Atlantic  Division  47,523,000 

Central  Division 106,417,000 

Pacific  Division 58,287,000 


Total 212,227,000 

Of  this  excavation,  180,423,874  cubic  feet  had 
been  accomplished  by  Americans  to  October  i, 
1912,  leaving  approximately  31,803,126  cubic  feet 
remaining  to  be  excavated. 

The  amount  of  material  taken  out  by  the  Old 
and  New  Panama  Canal  Companies  (French)  was 
78,146,960  cubic  yards,  of  which  it  is  estimated  29,- 
908,000  cubic  yards  has  been  utilized  in  the  adopted 
plan  of  Canal ;  making  the  total  excavation  for  the 
Canal  242,135,000  cubic  yards. 


20 


BREAKWATERS 

Breakwaters  are  under  construction  at  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific  entrances  of  the  Canal.  That  in 
Limon  Bay,  or  Colon  harbor,  extends  into  the  bay 
from  Toro  Point,  at  an  angle  of  42  degrees  and 
53  minutes  northward  from  a  base  line  drawn  from 
Toro  Point  to  Colon  light,  and  will  be  10,500  feet 
in  length,  or  11,700  feet,  including  the  shore  con- 
nection, with  a  width  at  the  top  of  fifteen  feet  and 
a  height  above  mean  sea  level  of  ten  feet.  The 
width  at  the  bottom  will  depend  largely  on  the 
depth  of  water.  It  will  contain  approximately 
2,840,000  cubic  yards  of  rock,  the  core  bein^ 
formed  of  rock  quarried  on  the  mainland  near 
Toro  Point,  armored  with  hard  rock  from  Porto 
Bello.  Work  began  on  the  breakwater  in  August, 
1910,  and  on  May  I,  1911,  the  fill  had  been  extended 
4,214  feet.  The  estimated  cost  is  $5,500,000.  A 
second  breakwater  has  been  proposed  for  Limon 
Bay,  but  this  part  of  the  project  has  not  been  for- 
mally acted  upon.  The  purpose  of  the  breakwaters 
is  to  convert  Limon  Bay  into  a  safe  anchorage,  to 


protect  shipping  in  the  harbor  of  Colon,  and  ves- 
sels making  the  north  entrance  to  the  Canal,  from 
the  violent  northers  that  are  likely  to  prevail  from 
October  to  January,  and  to  reduce  to  a  minimum 
the  amount  of  silt  that  may  be  washed  into  the 
dredged  channel. 

The  breakwater  at  the  Pacific  entrance  will 
extend  from  Balboa  to  Naos  Island,  a  distance  of 
about  17,000  feet,  or  a  little  more  than  three  miles. 
It  will  lie  from  900  to  2,700  feet  east  of  and  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  distance  nearly  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  Canal  prism;  will  vary  from  20  to 
40  feet  in  height  above  mean  sea  level,  and  will  be 
from  50  to  3,000  feet  wide  at  the  top.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  it  will  contain  about  18,000.000  cubic 
yards  of  earth  and  rock,  all  of  which  will  be  brought 
from  Culebra  Cut.  It  is  constructed  for  a  two- 
fold purpose;  first,  to  divert  cross  currents  that 
would  carry  soft  material  from  the  shallow  har- 
bor of  Panama  into  the  Canal  channel;  second,  to 
insure  a  more  quiet  harbor  at  Balboa.  Work  was 
begun  on  it  in  May,  1908.  On  May  I,  1911,  it  had 
been  constructed  for  a  distance  of  13,000  feet. 


21 


CANAL  FORCE,  QUARTERS  AND  SUP- 
PLIES 

The  Canal  force  is  recruited  and  housed  by  the 
Quartermaster's  Department,  which  has  two  gen- 
eral branches,  labor  and  quarters,  and  material 
and  supplies.  Through  the  labor  and  quarters 
branch  there  have  been  brought  to  the  Isthmus 
43,432  laborers,  of  whom  11,797  came  from  Europe, 
19,448  from  Barbados,  the  balance  from  other 
islands  in  the  West  Indies  and  from  Colombia.  No 
recruiting  is  now  required,  the  supply  of  labor  on 
the  Isthmus  being  ample. 

In  the  month  of  August,  1912,  there  were  ap- 
proximately 45,000  employes  on  the  Isthmus  on 
the  rolls  of  the  Commission  and  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  Company,  about  5,000  of  whom  were 
Americans.  There  were  actually  at  work  on  Sep- 
tember 25,  1912,  35,861  men,  29,571  for  the  Com- 
mission, and  6,290  for  the  Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany. Of  the  29,571  men  working  for  the  Com- 
mission, 4,166  were  on  the  gold  roll,  which  com- 
prises those  paid  in  United  States  currency,  and 
25,405  were  on  the  silver  roll,  which  comprises  those 
paid  on  the  basis  of  Panaman  currency  or  its 
equivalent. 


The  gold  force  is  made  up  of  the  officials,  clerical 
force,  construction  men,  and  skilled  artisans  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  and  the  Panama  Rail- 
road Company.  Practically  all  of  them  are  Ameri- 
cans. The  silver  force  represents  the  unskilled 
laborers  of  the  Commission  and  the  Panama  Rail- 
road Company.  Of  these,  about  4,500  are  Euro- 
peans, mainly  Spaniards,  with  a  few  Italians  and 
other  races.  The  remainder,  about  25,000,  are  West 
Indians,  about  3,700  of  whom  are  employed  as 
artisans,  receiving  16,  20,  and  25  cents,  and  a  small 
number  32  and  44  cents,  an  hour.  The  standard 
rate  of  the  West  Indian  laborer  is  10  cents  an  hour, 
but  a  few  of  these  doing  work  of  an  exceptional 
character  are  paid  16  and  20  cents.  The  larger 
part  of  the  Spaniards  are  paid  20  cents  an  hour, 
and  the  rest  16  cents  an  hour. 

The  material  and  supply  branch  carries  in  eight 
general  storehouses  a  stock  of  supplies  for  the 
Commission  and  Panama  Railroad  valued  approxi- 
mately at  $4,500,000.  About  $12,000,000  worth  of 
supplies  are  purchased  annually,  requiring  the  dis- 
charge of  one  steamer  each  day. 


22 


FOOD,  CLOTHING  AND  OTHER  NECES- 
SARIES 

The  Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  forces  are  sup- 
plied with  food,  clothing-  and  other  necessaries 
through  the  Subsistence  Department,  which  is 
divided  into  two  branches — Commissary  and  Hotel. 
It  does  a  business  of  about  $7,500,000  per  annum. 
The  business  done  by  the  Commissary  Department 
amounts  to  about  $6,000,000  per  annum,  and  that 
done  by  the  hotel  branch  to  about  $1,500,000  per 
annum. 

The  Commissary  system  consists  of  22  general 
stores  in  as  many  Canal  Zone  villages  and  camps 
along  the  relocated  line  of  the  Panama  Railroad. 
It  is  estimated  that  with  employes  and  their  depend- 
ents, there  are  about  65,000  people  supplied  daily 
with  food,  clothing,  and  other  necessaries.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  retail  stores,  the  following  plants  are 
operated  at  Cristobal :  cold  storage,  ice  making, 
bakery,  coffee  roasting,  ice  cream,  laundry  and 
packing  department. 

A  supply  train  of  21  cars  leaves  Cristobal  every 


morning  at  4  a.  m.  It  is  composed  of  refrigerator 
cars  containing  ice,  meats  and  other  perishable 
articles,  and  ten  containing  other  supplies.  These 
are  delivered  at  the  stations  along  the  line  and  dis- 
tributed to  the  houses  of  employes  by  the  Quarter- 
master's Department. 

The  hotel  branch  maintains  the  Hotel  Tivoli  at 
Ancon,  and  also  18  hotels  along  the  line  for  white 
gold  employes  at  which  meals  are  served  for  thirty 
cents  each.  At  these  18  hotels  there  are  served 
monthly  about  200,000  meals.  There  are  sixteen 
messes  for  European  laborers,  who  pay  40  cents 
per  ration  of  three  meals.  There  are  served  at 
these  messes  about  270,000  meals  per  month.  There 
are  also  operated  for  the  West  Indian  laborers 
fourteen  kitchens,  at  which  they  are  served  a  ration 
of  three  meals  for  27  cents  per  ration.  There  are 
about  100,000  meals  served  monthly  at  these 
kitchens.  The  supplies  for  one  month  for  the  line 
hotels,  messes  and  kitchens  cost  about  $85,000; 
labor  and  other  expenses  about  $17,500.  The 
monthly  receipts,  exclusive  of  the  revenue  from  the 
Hotel  Tivoli,  amount  to  about  $105,000. 


PANAMA  CANAL  STATISTICS 


Length  from  deep  water  to  deep  water 
Bottom    width    of    channel,    maximum 

( feet)    i  ,000 

Bottom  width  of  channel,  minimum,  9 

miles,  Culebra  Cut  (feet) 300 

Locks,  in  pairs 12 

Locks,  usable  length  (feet) 1,000 

Locks,  usable  width  (feet) no 

Gatun  Lake,  area  (square  miles) 164 

Gatun  Lake,  channel  depth  (feet) 85  to  45 

Culebra  Cut,  channel  depth  (feet) 45 

Excavation,  estimated  total  (cubic  yds.). 242, 135,000 
Excavation,    amount    accomplished    by 

Americans  September  30,  1912  (cubic 

yards) 180,423,874 

Excavation    by    the    French,    useful    to 

present  Canal  (cubic  yards) 29,908,000 

Total  excavation  by  the  French   (cubic 

yards)   78,146,960 

Excavation    by    the    French,    estimated 

value  to  Canal $25,389,240 


Value  of  all  French  property $42,799,826 

Concrete,  total  estimated  for  Canal 

(cubic  yards) 5,000,000 

Time  of  transit  through  completed  Canal 

(hours)  10  to  12 

Time  of  passage  through  locks  (hours)  .  3 

Relocated  Panama  Railroad,  estimated 

cost  $  9,000,000 

Relocated  Panama  Railroad,  length 

(miles)  47-1 

Canal  Zone,  area  (square  miles) 448 

Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  force  ac- 
tually at  work  May  i,  1912  (about) .  .  35,ooo 
Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  force, 

Americans  (about) 5,ooo 

Cost  of  Canal,  estimated  total $375,000,000 

Work  begun  by  Americans May  4,  1904 

Date  of  completion,  official Jan.  I,  1915 

Excavation  remaining  to  be  done  Oct.  I, 

1912,  estimated  (cubic  yards) 31,803,126 


24 


VALUE  OF  THE  $40,000,000  FRENCH 
PURCHASE 

A  careful  official  estimate  has  been  made  by  the 
Canal  Commission  of  the  value  to  the  Commission 
of  the  franchises,  equipment,  material,  work  done, 
and  property  of  various  kinds  for  which  the  United 
States  paid  the  French  Canal  Company  $40,000,- 
ooo.  It  places  the  total  value  at  $42,799,826, 
divided  as  follows: 

Excavation,  useful  to  the  Canal,  29,- 

708,000  cubic  yards $25,389,240.00 

Panama  Railroad  Stock 9,644,320.00 

Plant  and  material,  used  and  sold  for 

scrap  2,112,063.00 

Buildings,  used  2,054,203.00 

Surveys,  plans,  maps  and  records .  . .  2,000,000.00 

Land  i  ,000,000.00 

Clearings,  roads,  etc 100,000.00 

Ship  channel  in  Panama  Bay,  four 

years'  use 500,000.00 

Total $42,799,826.00 

25 


THE  CANAL  ZONE 

The  Canal  Zone  contains  about  448 'square  miles. 
It  begins  at  a  point  three  marine  miles  from  mean 
low  water  mark  in  each  ocean,  and  extends  for 
five  miles  on  each  side  of  the  center  line  of  the 
route  of  the  Canal.  It  includes  the  group  of 
islands  in  the  Bay  of  Panama  named  Perico,  Naos, 
Culebra,  and  Flamenco.  The  cities  of  Panama  and 
Colon  are  excluded  from  the  Zone,  but  the  United 
States  has  the  right  to  enforce  sanitary  ordinances 
in  those  cities,  and  to  maintain  public  order  in  them 
in  case  the  Republic  of  Panama  should  not  be 
able,  in  the  judgment  of  the  United  States,  to  do  so. 

Of  the  448  square  miles  of  Zone  territory,  the 
United  States  owns  the  larger  portion,  the  exact 
amount  of  which  is  being  determined  by  survey. 
Under  the  treaty  with  Panama,  the  United  States 
has  the  right  to  acquire  by  purchase,  or  by  the  exer- 
cise of  the  right  of  eminent  domain,  any  lands, 
buildings,  water  rights,  or  other  properties  neces- 
sary and  convenient  for  the  construction,  main- 
tenance, operation,  sanitation,  and  protection  of  the 
Canal,  and  it  can,  therefore,  at  any  time  acquire  the 
lands  within  the  Zone  boundaries  which  are  owned 
by  private  persons. 


— Plioto  by  rmlcnvooil  &  rndrnvcioil.   X.   Y 

Bird's-eye  View  of  City  of  Panama. — New  University  of  Panama  on  Left  of  Picture  and  Reservoir  in  Foreground. 


— Photo  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  T 


View  Showing  East  Chamber,  Lower  and  Middle  Locks  at  Gatun,  with  Section  of  Rack  Track  on  East  Wall. 

Photographed  March  14,  1912. 


Cylindrical  Valve  Machine,  Motor,  and  Limit  Switch.  Electricity  Is  Used  to  Operate  All  Gates  and  Valves 

Along  the  Canal, 


Miraflores   Upper  Locks,   Center   Wall   Culvert,   Showing    Stoney    Gate    Castings    in    Place.      Photographed 

June  23,  1912. 


Rising  Stem  Gate  Valve  Machine.    The  Average  Time  of  Filling  and  Emptying  a  Lock  Will  Be  About  Fif- 
teen Minutes.    The  Valve  System  Will  Furnish  Perfect  Control  of  the  Water   Flow. 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks,  Detail  of  Construction  of  Electric   Towing   Locomotive   Rack   Track. 

Towed  by  Electricity  Through  the  Canal. 


All   Vessels   Will   Be 


iont   Tower,   Range   5-6,   Atlantic   Division.     These    Range  Lights  Form  an  Important  Feature  of  the   Navigation 

Facilities   of   the   Canal   System. 


Front  Tower,  Range  9-11,  Pacific  Entrance  Looking  Southeast.     Photographed  November  7,  1911,  and  Show- 
ing  the    Reinforced    Concrete    Construction    of    the    Lighthouses. 


Rear  Tower,  Range  9-11,  Pacific  Entrance,  Looking  Northwest.     This  Is  One  of  the  Efficient  Range  Lights  that 
Will  Make  the  Navigation  of  the  Canal  Safe  and  Easy,  Night  and  Day. 


Gatun  Spillway  Looking  Southwest,  Showing  Downstream  Face  of  Ogee  Dam,  as  it  Appeared  June  6,   1912. 


South  End  of  Naos  Island  Dump,  4,000  Feet  from  Island.     Center  at  "A"  is  75  Feet  from  Track  and  25  Feet  Above 
the  Original  Bottom.     Elevation  of  Trestle,   +14.     Photographed  December,  1911. 


Stripping  Cocoli  Hill  Adjacent  to  Canal  Prism.    Photographed  March  21,  1912,  and  Showing  the  Method  of  Hydraulic 

Excavation. 


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Gatun  Upper  Locks,  West   Chamber,   Looking   North,   Showing  Upper  Guard  Gates,  Operating  Gates,  Intermediate 

Gates,  and  Safety  Gates  in  Process  of  Construction,  June  7,  1912. 


Gatun  Upper  Locks,  East  Chamber,  Looking   North  from    Forebay,    Showing    Upper    Guard    Gates    and   Emergency 
Dam  Sill,  July  7,  1912.     The  Lock  Gates  Are  Steel  Structures  7   Feet  Thick  and  Weigh   from  300  to 

600  Tons  Each. 


Gatun  Upper  Locks,  Looking  North  from  Lighthouse,  as  They  Appeared  July  2,  1912.    The  Three  Pairs  of  Locks  at 

Gatun  Have  a  Combined   Lift  of  85   feet. 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks,  South  End  of  East  Chamber,  Showing   Construction   of   Safety   and   Lower   Gates   as 
They  Appeared  June  3,  1912.     See  Model  of  These  Locks  on  Page  17. 


Gatun  Lower  Locks  Looking  South  fom  Cofferdam,  Showing   West   Chambers   of   Upper   and   Middle   Locks, 

as   They  Appeared  on  November  9,  1911. 


Gatun  Upper  Locks,  Miter  Gate  Moving  Machine,  Structural  Steel  Girders  for  Towing  Locomotive  Track 
Supports  in  Foreground.     This  Photograph  Was  Taken  in  June,  1912. 


Gatun  Locks  Forebay,  East  Side  Looking  North,  Showing  Flaring   Approach  Wall.     Photographed  June  7,   1912. 


Gatun  Dam,  West  Section  of  Dam  Looking  West,  Showing  Progress  of  Hydraulic  Fill,  June  12,   1912. 
Dam  Is  Nearly  iy2  Miles  Long  and  About  Y2  Mile  Wide  at  Its  Base. 


This  Great 


Culebra  Cut,   South  End,   Looking   South   from  Bridge  ^V2   and   Showing  the   Partly   Completed   Anchorage    Basin 
North  of  Pedro  Miguel  Lock.     Train  Is  on  Completed   Bottom   of   Canal,   Elevation    +40.     Photo- 
graphed June,  1912. 


Gatun   Spillway   Looking   East   Toward    Locks,    Showing    Up  and  Down  Stream  Faces  of  Ogee  Dam,  June  6,  1912. 
The  Spillway  Will  Be  Used  to  Regulate  the  Water  Level  of  Gatun  Lake. 


Culebra  Cut  Looking  North  from  Las  Cascadas.     All  Trains  Are  Standing  on  the  Bottom  of  the  Cut,  Elevation  +40. 

Photographed  May,  1912. 


Culebra  Cut  Looking  North  from  Bridge  57^/2,  Near  Paraiso.    The  Train  on  the  Left,  Just  Beyond  the  Trestle  Bridge, 
Is  on  the  Completed  Bottom  of  the  Canal,  Elevation  +40.     Photographed  June,   1912, 


Culebra  Cut,  Looking  South  from  Empire  Suspension  Bridge.    The  Group  of  Well  Drills  in  the  Middle  of  the  Canal 
Is  About  27  Feet  Above  the  Bottom,  or  at  Elevation  +67,  Photographed  May,  1912. 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks.     Bird's-eye  View  from  Hill  on  East  Bank.     The   Photograph  Was  Taken  July  28,  1912. 


Culebra  Cut,  Culebra.     Break  in  East  Bank  of  Canal.     Amount  of  Material  Involved,  320,000  Cubic  Yards.    The  Train 
Shown  in  Foreground  Is  About  35  Feet  Above  the  Bottom,  or  at  Elevation  +75.    Photographed  February  n,  1912. 


Pedro   Miguel   Locks. 


Bird's-eye  View  of  North   Approach  Wall  from   Hill  at  East  End, 
as  It  Appeared  July  28,  1912. 


Miraflores  Locks  Looking  North,  as  They  Appeared  June  21,  1912.     See  Description  of  Locks  on  pages  14  to  18. 


Miraflores  Locks,  West  Chamber,  Looking  South.     Photographed  June  23,  1912.    Each  Lock  Has  a  Usable  Length 

of  1,000  Feet  and  Width  of  no  Feet. 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks,  Looking  South.    West  Forebay,  with    Emergency  Dam  Sill.     Photographed  June  5,   1912.     See 

Model  of  Locks  on  Page  17. 


Slide  of  Stratified  Rock,  West  Bank  of  Canal,  Culebra-on-the-Dump,  Looking  Toward  Culebra.    Slide  Involves  About 
1,000,000  Cubic  Yards  and  Moved  About  3  Feet  Per  Day  on  a  Slope  of  i  Vertical  to  7  Horizontal.    The 
Train   Is   Standing  at   Elevation    +95.     Photographed    February,    1912. 


Miraflores  Upper  Locks.     General  View  Looking  North    from  Lower  West  Bank,  Showing  Cylindrical  Valves 

Photographed  July  25,  1911. 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks,  North  End  of  West  Chamber  Showing  Construction  of  Upper  Guard  Gates  and  Upper 

Gates,  as  They  Appeared  June  5,   1912. 


Balboa — Lumber  Dock  of  Reinforced  Concrete,  Looking   Northeast.     June,  1912.     This  Pacific  Port  at  the  South- 
western End  of  the  Canal  Will  Benefit  Largely  from  Its   Construction. 


Slide  in  East  Bank  of  Canal  Near  Cucaracha,  June,  1912.    This  Illustrates  One  of  the  Difficulties  with  Which 
the   Engineers  and   Construction   Department   Have   Had  to   Contend. 


Culebra  Cut  Looking  South  from  Bend  in  East  Bank  Near  Gamboa.    The  Train  and  Shovel  Are  Standing  on  the  Bot- 
tom of  the  Cut.     The  Water  in  the  Drainage  Channel  Is  About  10  Feet  Below  the  Bottom  of  the 
Canal,  or  at  Elevation  +30.     Photographed  June,   1912. 


Empire-Chorrera  i6-Foot  Macadam  Road  Under  Construction  with  Zone  Prison  Labor,  as  It  Appeared  August  29,  1912. 


Pedro  Miguel  Locks  Looking  North,  Showing  Upper  Guard  Gates,  East  Chamber  Forebay,  and  Construction 
of  Approach  Wall.    The  Scene  Was  Photographed   March  28,   1912. 


Steam  Shovel  218  Buried  Under  Fall  of  Rock,  West  Side  of  Canal,  Near  Las  Cascadas.    This  Shovel  Was  Working  on 

the  Bottom  of  the  Canal  When  Destroyed,  May  31,   1912. 


Miraflores  Upper  Locks,   Showing   Stoney   Gate   Valve  Frames  in  Position  in  South  End  of  West  Wall. 

Photographed  November  8,  1911. 


West  Breakwater,  Looking  Seaward  from  Toro  Point,  Showing  Dredge  at  Work  Placing  Rock  on   Face  of  Break- 
water.    Photographed  June,   1912. 


Gatun  Lower  Lock,  East  Chamber,  Looking  North,  Showing  Temporary  Cofferdam  at  Extreme  End  of  Lock 

Chamber.     The   View  Was  Taken  June    12,   1912. 


Gatun    Locks.      General   View    Looking    Southwest,    Showing    North    End    of   the    Locks,   with    Temporary 

Cofferdam  in   Place.    Photographed  July  2,  1912. 


Heated   Material   on   the   West   Side   of   the   Canal,   350    Yards  North  of  Culebra  y. 

500'  x  25'  x  20.     Photographed  February  16,  1912. 


Extent  of  Heated  Material 


Culebra  Cut,  Looking  North  from  Empire  Suspension  Bridge.     The    Nearest    Shovel    Shown,   in    the    Lowest    Cut,    Is 
Working  About  12  Feet  Above  the  Bottom,  or  at  Elevation  +52.    The  Photograph  Was  Taken  in  May,  1912. 


Culebra  Cut  Looking  North  from  Cunette.    The  Two   Shovels  Shown  in  the  Foreground  Are  Working  on  the 
Bottom,  Elevation  +40.    The  Water  Standing  in  the  Center  Drainage  Channel  Is  About  6  Feet  Below  the 

Bottom,  Elevation  +34-    Photographed  in  June,  1912. 


South  End  of  Naos  Island  Dump,  4,000  Feet  from  Island.    Center  at  "A"  Is  80  Feet  from  Track  and  25  Feet  Above 
the    Original    Bottom.     Elevation    of    Trestle,  +14.    Photographed  in  December,  1911. 


Miraflores  Lower  Locks.    Slide  Back  of  West  Wall,    Looking   South,   as   It   Appeared   March   21,    1912. 


Miraflores  Locks.   Sinking  Caissons  for  Foundation  of  North  Approach  Wall,  Looking  North,  June  14,   1912. 


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Columnar  Structure  in  Hardened  Flows  of  Mud  Lava.    This  Jointing  Afforded  Passages  for  Seepage  Water  Which 
Tended  Largely  to  Promote  a  Large  Slide  Just  North  of  La  Pita. 


"A"  Fault  Plane.   "B"  Crushed  and  Sheared  Zone  of  Rock.   "C"  Stronger  Rocks,  Beds  of  Limy  Sandstone.   This 
Fault  Was  the  Chief  Cause  of  the  Big  Slide  on  the   West   (Opposite)   Side  of  the  Canal  Near  Lirio. 


Rear  Tower,  Lighthouse,  Range  3-4.     (9-11)   Pacific  Entrance  of  the   Canal  at  Low  Tide.     Front  Tower. 


Gatun  Locks  and  Dam,  Looking  West  from  Water  Tower,  Showing  South  Center  Approach  Wall  and  Forebay 
of  Gatun  Locks,  with  Dam  and  Spillway  in  the  Distance.     Photographed  June,  1912, 


Gatun  Spillway  Looking  Southwest,  Showing  Downstream  Face  of  Ogee  Dam,  as  it  Appeared  June  6,   1912. 


Culebra  Cut  Looking  South  from  Cunette.    The  Two  Shoveels  Shown  in  the  Foreground  Are  Working  on  the  Bottom 

of   the   Canal,    Elevation   +40.    Photographed   in   May,    1912. 


Culebra  Cut,  Looking  North  from  a  Point  South  of  Contractor's  Hill,  Showing  Quiescent  State  of  the  Great  Cucaracha 

Slide  on  Right  Bank.     Photographed  May,  1912. 


Channel  Excavated  at  San  Pablo  During  Dry  Season,  1912.    This  Channel  Is  Completed  and  Is  800  Feet  Wide,  With 

Bottom  Elevation  at  +40. 


Embankment  of  Old  Panama  Railroad  Excavated  Down  to  -f35  in  APril  and  May,  1912. 


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General  View  of  Balboa  Terminal    Site,    Looking   North,  June,    1912. 


Dredge  "Corozal"  in  Channel  Near  Station  2210  of  the  Canal  Operations.    Photographed  in  June,  1912. 


Mandingo  Stockade  for  Zone  Convicts  Engaged  in  Road    Building.    The   Photograph  Was   Made  in  August,   1912. 


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